Leviticus 16 & Mishnah Yoma: A Theological Study

LEVITICUS 16:1-34
(In the Light of Mishnah Yoma)
By
J. Julians Marlan Joshi
A Paper Submitted to the Faculty of Theology
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Course on
Yom Kippur as the Centre and Focus of the Torah
To
Dr. Andreas Vonach
Jnana-Deepa Vidyapeeth
Pontifical Institute of Philosophy and Religion
Pune 411 014
September 2011
1
Introduction
It is generally agreed among the scholars that Lev 16 is not only the centre of the book of
Leviticus but it also constitutes the centre of Torah.1 We see in it, the law for a Temple-based
institutional festival that consists of two major rites; (1) the purification of the sanctuary,
priesthood, and people (Lev 16:16-19, 30, 33, 34), and (2) the expulsion the goat to Azazel, with
all the sins of the Israel (Lev 16:10, 20-22). We also see a whole tractate in the Mishnah named
Yoma studying in detail the rites and regulations Lev 16 speaks of. The objective of this paper
hence is to study the distinctive theology of Lev 16, by comparing it with the Rabbinical
teaching on it as expounded in Mishnah Yoma. The research question is as to how Mishnah
Yoma which has preserved descriptions of very ancient rites in a detailed and descriptive manner
that are absent from Lev 16 itself, complements it in a more comprehensive way and what these
mean to our Christian context.
The methodology of our research is as follows; at first we shall study the literary context
of Lev 16, a few of its text critical problems which we consider relevant to our discussion and
focus on certain words that are employed uniquely in this particular chapter. They are followed
by a brief introduction to Mishnah and to one of its tractates Yoma. Then analyzing the various
proposals given by the scholars with regards to the structure of Lev 16, we shall propose a
structure to it, based on the chronological sequence of events described in it. Such a structure
makes easier its comparison with Mishnah Yoma. Then we shall study each component of the
structure complementing it with additional details Mishnah Yoma provides to it. The concluding
remarks will sum up the content of our research and speak of its relevance to our context.
The Literary Context of Lev 16
The chapters 11-15 that precede Lev 16 are concerned with explaining the difference
between what is clean and unclean. They speak that all persons are susceptible to contract
uncleanness through various means. The uncleanness rules described in them are so wide ranging
in their nature, that unknowingly people would infringe upon them and thus pollute the
sanctuary. Hence the aim of Lev 16 is to introduce a ritual that would cleanse the impurities
introduced in the sanctuary (16:16, 19) atone the sins of the high priest and his household (16:6,
1
J. E. Hartley, Leviticus (WBC 4: Dallas: Word Books Publisher, 1992), 217.
2
11, 17, 24) and the sins of the people (16:10, 17, 24) and make possible Yahweh‟s continued
presence among his people. 2 Hence Lev 16 can be called the consummation of the previous
fifteen chapters and provider of the spiritual energy and motivation to carry out the imperatives
of the succeeding chapters 17–27.3
Text Critical Notes
BHS offers almost thirty text critical notes on this chapter. However we shall see only a
few that we consider relevant to our discussion. In v 1 LXX adds ἐν τῷ προσάγειν αὐτοὺς πῦρ
ἀλλότριον = ‫בהקריבם אׁש זרה‬, “when they entered with strange fire.” We prefer the MT reading as
that of LXX could be because of the influence of another text (cf. Num 3:4).4 And in 15.b, in
place of MT‟s ‫את־דמו‬, “its blood,” LXX reads ἀπὸ τοῦ αἵματος αὐτοῦ, “some of its blood,” as in
v 14. Though it could be understood as the leveling of the text5 we consider the LXX reading
seriously as it corresponds with the description found in Mishnah Yoma.
Unique Terms
Before we delve into the exposition of the text proper, we need to study a few words that
are found either only in this chapter or used uniquely in it. It is needed because the way the one
understands these terms does influence greatly the interpretation of the text.
‫הקדׁש‬
This term occurs in vv2, 3, 16,17,20,23 and 27 (also at 4:6; 10:4 and Ezek 41:21, 23). In
all these instances it means the innermost sanctuary containing the Ark, whereas elsewhere it
stands for the outer sanctuary and the innermost sanctuary was called ‫( ֹ֥ק ֶדׁש ַה ֳּק ָד ִֽׁׁשים‬cf. Exod
26:33).
2
M. F. Rooker, Leviticus (NAC 3A: Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2000), 213.
Hartley, Leviticus, 217.
4
Hartley, Leviticus, 221.
5
Hartley, Leviticus, 221.
3
3
‫כפרת‬
It refers to a slab of refined gold, placed on top of the Ark used to support the two cherubim,
kneeling and facing each other with bowed heads and outstretched wings so as to touch in the
middle.6 It is the place where Yahweh is enthroned and it stands as the boundary between him
and the tablets of the covenant.7 The English translation of this word varies as there are various
explanations to it based on its possible etymological meanings.8 However we understand that the
reason it received the name ‫ כפרת‬lies with its cultic function. It is at the ‫ כפרת‬that the most critical
blood rites for achieving expiation were performed on the Day of Atonement. Thus we shall
understand it a place of propitiation.
‫עזאזל‬
This word occurs only four times in the OT and all of them are in Lev 16 (vv 8, 10
(twice), 26). Its meaning has been disputed from ancient times.9 LXX and Vg understand it to be
a composite of two words, ‫עז‬, “goat,” and ‫אזל‬, “go away,” i.e., “the goat which departs (τῷ
ἀποπομπαίῳ).” Feinberg takes Azazel to be an abstract term meaning “entire removal”; the
phrase ‫ לעזאזל‬then means “for removal.10 B. Yoma 63b renders it “hardest of the mountains” as
though it were written ‫עזז אל‬.11 A fourth position holds that ‫ עזאזל‬is the proper name of a demon
that inhabited the desert. The later inter-testamental literature calls the principal evil spirit with
this name (Enoch 8:1; 9:6; 10:4–8; 13:1–2; 54:5; 55:4; 69:2).12 Hence, this is not only the most
popular interpretation but it is also the most likely.13
6
. P ter-Contesse & Ellington, A handbook on Leviticus. UBS handbooks; Helps for translating (New
York: UBS, 1992), 242.
7
Jacob Milgrom, Leviticus 1-16: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 3: New York:
Doubleday, 1991), 1016
8
See. Erhard S. Gerstenberger, Leviticus: A Commentary (OIL; Louisville, KY: Westminster JohnKnox,
1996), 216. He translates it “covering plate”. P ter-Contesse & Ellington, A handbook on Leviticus, 242. They
propose to translate it “lid” or “cover.” Hartley, Leviticus, 223. He translates it “atonement slate.”
9
Hartley, Leviticus, 237.
10
Charles L. Feinberg, “The Scapegoat of Leviticus Sixteen,” Bsac 115 (1958):324.
11
Feinberg, “The Scapegoat of Leviticus”, 325.
12
Hartley, Leviticus, 238.
13
P ter-Contesse & Ellington, A handbook on Leviticus, 246.
4
Mishnah
Mishnah refers to a collection of decisions and traditional laws embracing all aspects of
civil and religious legislation. It was given its final form by Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi, around the
second century CE. It is divided into six parts (or orders), which are in turn subdivided into
tractates, chapters, and paragraphs. The part is called Seder, the tractate Masekhet, the chapter
Perek; the smallest paragraph of the collection bears, like the collection itself, the name
Mishnah. The text of our concern Mishnah Yoma appears as the fifth tractate in the second part
entitled Mo'ed, literally "Times of appointments". Yoma literally means "the Day.”14
The Mishnaic law was applied when the Jews had no access to the temple and the city of
Jerusalem. Therefore, a sizable proportion of the Mishnah deals with matters to which the writers
of this work had no material access or practical knowledge at the time of their work.15 However
next to the Hebrew Scriptures, it is considered the first canonical document of Judaism and
stands at the head of the paramount and continuing expression of law and theology of Judaism
till today. It has been and is continued to be memorized in the circle of all those who participate
in the religion, Judaism.16 It forms the center of the curriculum of Judaism as a living religion
thus necessary to the understanding of Judaism. With regards to its content, some of its tractates
merely repeat what we find in the Bible. Some are totally independent of the Bible. And some
fall in between and the tractate on Yoma falls under the third category.
The Structure of Lev 16
As a whole, Lev 16 has the following three principal sections: verses 1-2 which deal with
the death of Aaron‟s sons, verses 3-28 that are concerned with the need for atonement and the
rituals that effect it and verses 29-34 that give a command to make this feast something for all
generations. Scholars who are almost unanimous with regards to the first and the third section
differ from one another with regard to the breaking of the second section, which has got greater
detail into various subsections. We illustrate here two proposals of the structures proposed by
scholars, as the structure that we are to propose is inspired by theirs.
14
See. Roger Brooks, “Mishnah,” ABD 4:871–73.
J. Neusner, The Mishnah: A new translation ( New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), xv. All
Mishnah texts quoted in this paper are from this book on pages 265-79.
16
Neusner, The Mishnah, xv.
15
5
J. E. Hartley sees Lev 16 as chiastically constructed.17 He divides it in the following manner.
A Narrative and introduction (vv 1–2)
B Calendrical agenda (vv 3–10)
C Liturgical regulations (vv 11–28)
B´ Calendrical instructions (vv 29–34a)
A´ Compliance report (v 34b).
. P ter-Contesse & Ellington proposes a structure by breaking the chapter into the following
subsections.18
Introduction (1)
The behavior and dress of the High Priest (2-5)
An overall view of the ritual (6-10)
A detailed view of the ritual (11-28)
Additional instructions (29-31)
Conditions for the repetition of the ritual (32-34)
However we face a problem when proposing a structure to Lev 16 as its second section (328) is of composite nature. 19 The ceremonies described in it are also too complex and the
sequences of them are not too clear. They are not described in a linear fashion. For example, in v
3 Aaron appears with a bull and a ram for his own offerings. The bull is slaughtered in verse 6
(in the overview of the ritual), but the ram for the burnt offering is not slaughtered until verse 24
(in the detailed description of the ritual).20 This complexity is a matter of a concern to us since
we need to compare this text with Mishnah Yoma which follows a linear narrative fashion. In
order to make our research reader friendly, we too try to propose a structure of Lev 16, in a linear
fashion. Thus instead of an analysis verse by verse, we study the ceremonies prescribed in the
17
Hartley, Leviticus, 232.
. P ter-Contesse & Ellington, A handbook on Leviticus, 240.
19
N.H. Snaith, Leviticus and Numbers (NCB; London: Nelson, 1967), 109.
20
. P ter-Contesse & Ellington, A handbook on Leviticus, 240.
18
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second section in order of their chronological sequence. Hence we break the chapter into the
following subsections.
1. Narrative and Introduction (1-2)
2. The Speech Proper
2. A. Prescription of Actions (3-28)
The dress of the High Priest, and the animals needed for the ceremony (3-5)
Offering of the bull (6, 11)
Placing of the Censer (12-13)
Sprinkling of the Blood of the Bull (14)
Offering of the Goat and Sprinkling its blood (7-9, 15-17)
Purifying the Altar (18-19)
The goat for Azazel (20-22)
The Burnt offering (23-25)
The Cleansing of the Man who leads the goat away (26)
Burning of the remains of the purification offering and cleansing of the
participants (27-28)
2. B. Additional Instructions (29-34a)
People‟s duty (29-31,34a)
Priest‟s duty (32-33)
3. Compliance Report (34b)
The Narrative and Introduction (1-2)
The first verse follows upon Lev 10 chronologically, informing us that Lev 16 was
revealed to Moses after the death of Aaron‟s sons. This could tell us that at first this purgation
ritual was conceived an emergency measure (what rituals the high priest must carry out when he
enters the innermost sanctuary so that he does not lose his life as the sons of Aaron did) and then
7
it became an annual rite.21 Thus this verse places Lev 16 in a specific historical context. Mishnah
Yoma does not offer any such historical context to these rituals.
The Dress of the High Priest, and the Animals Needed for the Ceremony (3-5)
On the Day of Atonement, only the high-priest is to perform the rituals and he needs to
do them not in his usual high priest uniform (cf. Exod.28:39f.). Instead he is prescribed to wear
coat, breeches, girdle and turban all made of linen that are plainer than the vestments of the
ordinary priests (Exod 39:27-29).22 It is noteworthy they are called holy garments (‫י־קדֶ ׁש ֵֵ֔הם‬
ֹ֣ ‫) ִּבגְ ֵד‬.
There is much speculation about the meaning of this prescription. It may be due to its functional
value and symbolic meaning. Functionally speaking it might have been to prevent soiling the
regular high priestly clothing with blood which is sprinkled in abundance in the ceremony.23
Symbolically it could signify the entry of the high priest into the innermost sanctuary to be
equivalent of getting admission into the heavenly council (Ezek 9:2-3, 11; 10:2, 6-7).24 Mishnah
Yoma is silent about the symbolic as well as the functional meaning of the linen. However it
speaks of two kinds of linen the high priest must wear. He is to wear Pelsium linen at dawn and
Indian linen at dusk. It also speaks of their price (thirty manehs) and tells that the high priest
could buy ones that are more expensive than these at his own expense (M. Yoma 3:7).
The high priest needs to bathe his body in water both before the ministration of the rite
and after its culmination as well (v 4b, v24). Normally he was required to wash only his hands
and feet before entering the Tent or serving at the altar (Exod 30:19). Here the injunction to
bathe might be to signify that the entry into the innermost sanctuary needs more through-going
purification.25 While Lev 16 offers no directions with regards to where and how this bathing was
to take place, Mishnah Yoma speaks of it in an elaborate manner. It requires of the high priest
fifteen ablutions: five immersions and ten washings of the hand and feet (M. Yoma 3:3). Except
the first washing every other thing was done at the Parvah chamber. The first bathing is done
before the daily whole offering (M. Yoma 3:4).
21
Milgrom, Leviticus 1-16, 1013.
Gordon J. Wenham, The Book of Leviticus (NICOT: Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979), 230.
23
Milgrom, Leviticus 1-16, 1016.
24
Wenham, The Book of Leviticus, 230.
25
Milgrom, Leviticus 1-16, 1017.
22
8
The animals brought for sacrifices are to be domesticated animals as they alone are
permissible (Lev 1:2). They are to altogether five; two animals offered for the high priest and
two offered for the congregation plus the people‟s goat for Azazel.
What about the additional precautions the high priest must have taken to enter into the
innermost sanctuary? There is no doubt that he must have undergone a strenuous and meticulous
spiritual preparation. While Lev 16 is silent about this, Mishnah Yoma speaks extensively of
such preparation. It says, seven days before the festival the high priest was separated from his
wife and isolated in the councilors‟ chamber, thus avoiding all the possibility of getting external
impurity. A substitute was appointed for him, in case he should die or become unfit for his
duties. Taking the Lev 16:6 “And he shall make atonement for himself and for his house”
literally, and understanding “his house” as wife, it even prescribes a woman to be substituted for
his wife in case if his wife dies (M. Yoma 1:1). During those seven days the high priest is to
practice several manipulations required by the rite (M. Yoma 1:2). He is to be coached by elders,
who are to read and interpret to him the ordinances of the rite, thus he would be familiar with the
rite (M. Yoma 1:3). On the eve of the day he is not allowed to eat and it is necessary to keep him
awake lest he has a nocturnal emission and thereby become polluted (cf. Lev 15:16).26 To ward
of sleep he would expound the rituals or they would be expounded to him by the elders. The
biblical books such as Job, Daniel, Ezra and Chronicles are read by him or read to him (M.
Yoma 1:6). In spite of all these measures, if he finds it difficult to remain awake the priests are
to wake him up by snapping their fingers or make him walk on the cold stones. Finally, they
bound him by a solemn oath not to change anything in the rites of the day (M. Yoma 1:7).
Offering of the bull (6, 11)
First, the high priest is to present his own bull for purification. He thereby makes
expiation (‫ )כפר‬both ‫בעדו‬, “for himself,” and ‫בעד ביתו‬, “for his own house.” He is to do so before
he is able to act as the high priest on behalf of the people. The bull he offers corresponds to his
status as the spiritual head of the congregation.27 Commentators are of the opinion that the term
“his house” signifies “all the priests”28 but Mishnah Yoma concludes that it refers to the wife of
26
Milgrom, Leviticus 1-16, 1016.
See. Hartley, Leviticus, 243.
28
Hartley, Leviticus, 243.
27
9
the high priest (M. Yoma 1:1). Besides it also adds a few more details with regards to the
geographical location of the bull before it being offered. It was set between the Porch and the
Altar, both the high priest and the bull facing to the west (M. Yoma 3:8). It also speaks of the
hand- leaning ritual. The high priest is to put his two hands on the bull and recite a short
confession first for himself and his family and for the rest of the priests, as follows:
“O Lord, I have committed iniquity, transgressed, and sinned before you, I and my house. O
Lord, forgive the iniquities, transgressions, and sins, which I have done by committing iniquity,
transgression, and sin before you, I and my house. “As it is written in the Torah of Moses, your
servant, for on this day shall atonement be made for you to clean you. From all your sins shall
you be clean before the Lord (Lev. 16:30).”(M. Yoma 3:8). The blood of the slaughtered bull
was collected in a basin and a person would stir it so that it would not congeal (M. Yoma 4:3)
Placing of the Censer (12-13)
Before taking the blood of the bull into the innermost sanctuary, the high priest is to fill a
censer, full of glowing coals taken from the altar. The altar here refers to the sacrificial altar as
only it had perpetual fire (Num 17:11-12). He put on the coals two handfuls of finely ground
incense. What is the purpose of the smoke? Two possible answers are given: It could be to
protect the high priest from the presence of Yahweh (the smoke functions a screen).29 It also
could be understood as representing the prayers of the people entreating Yahweh to accept the
blood of the offerings and to graciously forgive his people (the smoke, a means of propitiating
Yahweh).30 Both answers needn‟t be mutually exclusive.
How did the high priest manage to enter into the innermost sanctuary, carrying a censer,
and two handfuls of incense simultaneously? Mishnah Yoma tells that that the incense was
emptied into a ladle and the high priest carried the censer in one hand and ladle of incense in the
other (M. Yoma 5:1). While the text describes the quality of the perfumed incense as fine,
Mishnah Yoma qualifies it to be finest of the fine and it also says that the censer used is a golden
one (M. Yoma 4:4). It further describes how the high priest enters into the innermost sanctuary.
He walks through the sanctuary until he comes to the space between the two veils which separate
29
Erhard S. Gerstenberger, Leviticus: A Commentary (OTL; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox,
1996), 216.
30
C. F. Keil & F. Delitzsch, Commentary on the Old Testament (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1982), 1:586.
10
the sanctuary from the innermost sanctuary. The outer one was looped up at the south, and the
inner one at the north, he walks between them. He walks along the curtain until he has reached
the ark; he places the fire on Shettiyah (M. Yoma 5:2). He is to say a short prayer in the outer
area, but that should be shorter not to frighten the Israelites (who might think that he had died)
(M. Yoma 5:1).
Sprinkling of the Blood of the Bull (14)
The high priest is to sprinkle some blood of the bull on the surface of ‫הכפרת‬, while
facing eastward. ‫ הכפרת‬is, in fact, the greatest means or place of atonement because Yahweh‟s
presence dwells on it.31 Then the high priest is to sprinkle (‫ )הזה‬some blood with his finger
before ‫ הכפרת‬seven times. No explanation is given for the twofold rite of sprinkling the blood.
Keil and Delitzsch take the first rite to be for the expiation of the priests‟ and the people‟s sins
and the second rite for the cleansing of the sanctuary.32 However there is no textual support to
prove or disprove this position. Lev 16 is silent concerning the way the blood was sprinkled.
Mishnah Yoma tells that the high priest did it like the one who cracks a whip all the while
counting the times he sprinkled (M. Yoma 5:3). It also says that the blood on the surface of
‫ הכפרת‬was sprinkled only once (5:3).
Offering of the Goat and Sprinkling its blood (7-9, 15-17)
The two goats that are presented by the congregation are stationed before Yahweh at the
entrance to the Tent of Meeting. There the high priest is to cast lots over them to decide which
one is to be sacrificed on the altar to Yahweh and which one is to be released into the wilderness
to Azazel. The purpose of the lots was to leave the selection of the animals to Yahweh.33
Mishnah Yoma prescribes the nature of the goats. That two of them are to be equivalent
in appearance, height and value and to be purchased simultaneously. But this rule is not strict and
the exception is allowed. If one of them died before the casting of the lots, the priest needs to
31
W. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1997), 666.
Keil & Delitzsch, Commentary on the Old Testament, 1:586.
33
P ter-Contesse & Ellington, A handbook on Leviticus, 245.
32
11
purchase a mate for the survivor. But if it died after the casting of the lots, he has to get another
mate and cast lots for them as at the outset. “And he says, “If the one belonging to the Lord died,
then this one upon which the lot, „For the Lord‟ has come up is to stand in its stead. “And if the
one which was for Azazel has died, this one upon which the lot, „For Azazel,‟ has come up will
stand in its stead.” And the second one is to be put out to pasture until it is blemished, and then it
is sold, and the money received for it is to fall to a freewill offering. For a sin offering of the
community is not left to die” (M. Yoma 6:1).
Mishnah Yoma also describes how the lots are to be cast. The wooden chest in which
the lots were kept was shaken by the high priest while he was flanked by his prefect and the head
of the ministering family. He took out one lot with each hand, and put that which he held in his
right hand upon the goat that was standing on his right side, and that his left hand upon the goat
on his left side, exclaiming each time „ a purification offering for the Lord (M. Yoma 3:9; 4:1).
Both the goats were tied a crimson thread. However to the one that was to be sent forth it was
tied on the head and to the one that was to be slaughtered it was tied around the throat (M. Yoma
4:2).
The high priest slaughters the people‟s goat for a purification offering (‫)חטאת‬. He is to
take some blood from this sacrifice to the innermost sanctuary and sprinkle it over ‫ הכפרת‬and
then sprinkle some of it seven times against ‫הכפרת‬. Here too Mishnah Yoma speaks of the
manner the sprinkling done (as one cracks a whip) (M. Yoma 5:4). It also says that having
completed the action of sprinkling, the high priest emptied the blood of the bull into the blood of
the goat and poured the contents of the full basin into the empty one (M. Yoma 5:4).
Purifying the Altar (18-19)
Having performed the rituals in the innermost sanctuary, the high priest comes to the
sacrificial altar and sprinkles blood upon it. Only in this sprinkling, the blood of the bull is joined
with the blood of the goat. Contrary to the purification done in the innermost sanctuary, here
only the altar receives the blood and not its surrounding places. It could be because of their lesser
12
holy nature.34 Two discrete actions are done: first the horns of the altar are daubed and then the
altar itself receives the blood seven times. It could be understood that the daubing of the altar
horns purifies the altar and the seven fold sprinkling of the altar re-consecrates it.35
Mishnah Yoma adds a few details to this rite. According to it both the altars (the inner
altar- incense altar, it calls it golden altar, the outer altar- the sacrificial altar) are sprinkled with
blood. The priest starts sprinkling on the golden altar in a downward gesture and he starts from
the northeastern corner, then to the northwestern, southwestern and southeastern ones (M. Yoma
5:5). The rest of the blood that was used to sprinkle upon the incense altar is poured onto the
western base of the outer altar and of that, used to sprinkle upon the outer altar is poured out on
its southern base. Both the streams of blood flow down to the Qidron brook and sold to gardeners
for fertilizer (M. Yoma 5:6). Mishnah Yoma also cautions that the proper order of the purgation
should never be missed and if it were to occur, “from the place at which he broke off, from there
he begins once more” (M. Yoma 5:7)
The goat for Azazel (20-22)
When the high priest has finished performing the rituals of expiation, he is to bring
forward the living goat. He is to place both of his hands on the goat‟s head and confess over it all
the sins of the people. By confessing these sins with both hands placed on the goat‟s head, the
high priest transfers the sins of the community to the goat. It is the only occurrence in the Bible
where the significance of the imposition of hands on the head of an animal is clearly explained as
the symbolical transference of the people‟s sins to the victim.36
The goat is sent away into the wilderness (‫)מדבר‬. It is sent out under the control of a
person prepared for this task in order to make sure that it does not run about through the camp
and that once it has reached the wilderness it does not turn back into any inhabited area, because
being laden with the sins of the people this goat is a terrible polluting force.37 The goat takes the
sins to the place of their origin and leaves them there. Thus the power sins had on the people is
broken.
34
Milgrom, Leviticus 1-16, 1036-37.
Milgrom, Leviticus 1-16, 1038.
36
Charles. L. Feinberg, “The Scapegoat of Leviticus Sixteen,” Bsac 115 (1958) 324.
37
Milgrom, Leviticus 1-16, 1044.
35
13
What was recited by the high priest in the confession? Lev 16 is silent on this. Mishnah
Yoma records the following: “O Lord, your people, the house of Israel, has committed iniquity,
transgressed, and sinned before you. Forgive, O Lord, I pray, the iniquities, transgressions, and
sins, which your people, the house of Israel, have committed, transgressed, and sinned before
you, “as it is written in the Torah of Moses, your servant, for on this day shall atonement be
made for you to clean you. From all your sins shall you be clean before the Lord (Lev. 16:30).”
(M. Yoma 6:2). It also records that the people and the priests when they hear the Expressed
Name of the Lord coming out of the mouth of the high priest, would bow down, fall on their
faces and respond 'Blessed be the Name; the glory of His kingdom is forever and ever' (M. Yoma
6:2). This shows that there was in fact participation (though minor) from others than the high
priest.
Though all are valid to lead it out the goat, the high priests made it a practice of not
letting Israelites to do that (M. Yoma 6:3) which means only the priests can lead out. There were
ten booths from Jerusalem to the ravine (M. Yoma 6:4).The eminent people of Jerusalem
accompanied the one who led the goat out to the first booth. It is thought that in the early period
the goat wandered around in the wilderness until it expired. It would be sure to perish out there
in the desert.38 However Mishnah Yoma also records that the goat was driven headlong from a
rock in the desert (M. Yoma 6:6). Killing the goat however was non-essential as it also says that
the high priest would resume his ritual as soon as he hears that the goat has reached the
wilderness (M. Yoma 6:8). What is emphasized is the complete removal of the sins of the people
by the ritual.39 It served a powerful visual aid that demonstrated the reality of the sin and the
need to eliminate it.
The Burnt offering (23-25)
After hearing that the goat has actually entered the wilderness, the high priest removes
his special linen robes and leaves them at the sanctuary, since they must remain in a place of
38
Keil & Delitzsch, Commentary on the Old Testament, 1:590.
Allen P. Ross, Holiness to the LORD: A Guide to the Exposition of the Book of Leviticus (Grand Rapids,
Mich.: Baker Academic, 2002), 321.
39
14
comparable sanctity because they have contracted its superior holiness.40 Besides that he needs to
wash himself in order to remove the super holiness that he contracted by entering the innermost
sanctuary and put on his usual priestly garments so that he may function at the altar of the whole
offering without endangering the congregation standing in that area. Next he is to offer up the
two whole offerings, first for himself and then for the people. These whole offerings make
further expiation for himself and the people. At this time he is to burn the fat of the purification
offering on the altar.
How does the high priest come to know that the goat has reached the wilderness?
Mishnah Yoma explains this. They made sentinel posts, and waved flags. They also had another
sign. The ravine was three miles far from Jerusalem. They could walk a mile, come back a mile
and wait sufficient time to walk a mile, thus they would know that the goat has reached the
wilderness. There seems to be another sign. There was a crimson thread tied to the door of the
sanctuary. When the goat had reached the wilderness, the thread would turn white signifying the
promise of Isaiah (cf. Isa 1:18) (M. Yoma 6:8).
As it has been already pointed out, there was a special bathhouse for the priestly ablutions
(M. Yoma 3:3). Now the question is “How did the high priest go from the tent to the place of
bath, naked?” Mishnah Yoma answers that that the high priest was separated from his viewers by
an improvised curtain (M. Yoma 3:4, 6). After the ablutions the high priest read the scripture
(Lev 16; 23:26-32) then he said eight blessings. These actions and the burning of the fat of the
purification offering were done simultaneously (M. Yoma 7:1, 2). Along with the two rams
seven unblemished lambs too were offered as burnt offering (M. Yoma 7:3). The high priest‟s
rites are now completed. Other than the three entries he makes into the innermost sanctuary
recorded in Lev 16, (vv 12-13, 14, 15) Mishnah Yoma describes his fourth entry into it in order
to remove the censer and the fire pan (M. Yoma 7:4). Then he goes home to celebrate a festival
for all his friends as he had come forth whole from the sanctuary (M. Yoma 7:4).
40
Jacob Milgrom, Leviticus: A Book of Ritual and Ethics (Continental Commentary; Minneapolis: Fortress
Press, 2004), 172. See. Keil & Delitzsch, Commentary on the Old Testament, 1:590. He thinks the priest because he
has handled the sin-laden goat, is contaminated, therefore has to wash himself.
15
The Cleansing of the Man who leads the goat out (26)
The person who has sent the goat to wilderness has become unclean in dealing with an
animal laden with the congregation‟s sins. Hence, on returning to the camp he is to wash his
clothes and bathe himself in water after that he may reenter the camp. It sounds incongruous
with other instances analogous to this as even the one who has contracted the slightest impurity
must wait until evening in order to be admitted into the camp (cf.11:25, 40).41 However Mishnah
Yoma says that he sat himself down under the last tabernacle until it got dark (M. Yoma 6:5).
Burning of the remains of the purification offering and cleansing of the
participants (27-28)
The parts of the bull and the goat such as the hides, the meat, and the offal that are not
burned on the altar are to be brought outside the camp and burned with fire (cf. 4:11–12). The
one who takes them outside must wash his clothes and bathe himself in water to become ritually
clean. It could be because the remains of the purification offerings symbolize death and that the
person who handles them contacts death and thus must go through ritual cleansing. 42 Afterwards
he may enter the camp and participate in the remaining observances of the day. Then how come
the priest who had handled these does not become impure? Here Mishnah Yoma comes to our
aid and answers that these parts do not transmit impurity while they are still inside the sacred
precincts (M. Yoma 6:6, 7).
Additional Instructions (29-34a)
This final part is critical because it adds the covenantal element to the chapter. It
proclaims the need for atonement from sin for the people of Israel for future generations. It can
be broken into two sections.
41
42
Milgrom, Leviticus 1-16, 1050.
Milgrom, Leviticus 1-16, 1053.
16
People’s duty (29-31,34a)
The people are addressed for the first time (‫)ל ֶכם‬.
ָ
Still now they have not played any
significant active role in the sanctuary ritual.43 First of all the date and the month of this ritual is
given (16:29; 23:26–32; 25:9; Num. 29:7–11). Then they were called to practice self affliction
(‫) ְּת ַעּנּו ֶאת־נַ ְּפׁש ֵת ֶיכם‬. It was further provided that the people should do absolutely no work. And
this ordinance was extended to the stranger that sojourns among the Israelites. The total embargo
on work and eating underlines the need for every individual to examine himself/ herself and
repent. The great holiness of this day led to its being called ‫ׁשבת ׁשבתון‬. “Statute forever,” is
repeated three times in this section (vv 29a, 31b, 34a) it tells that the ordinance for this day is to
last as long as there is a people of Israel.
What is meant by practicing self affliction (‫?)ת ַעּנּו ֶאת־נַ ְּפׁש ֵת ֶיכם‬
ְּ
Is it just a fasting as
recommended by Lev 23:32 that the Israelites must do from the evening of the 9th till the
evening of the 10th day or is there more to it? Mishnah Yoma understands that one fulfills this
“affliction” through the prohibition of five actions: eating, drinking, bathing, wearing leather
shoes, and sexual intercourse (M. Yoma 8.1). Mishnah adds further conditions such as that a
person who eats even a large date‟s bulk or drink liquid to a mouthful or the one who does the
prohibited act of labor are liable (M. Yoma 8:2, 3). The children are to be educated of these rules
(M. Yoma 8:4). However, it exempts pregnant women, people who are seized with extreme
hunger (may be fed even with prohibited foods until their appearance is restored) and those who
are in need of medicine from the rule of fasting (M. Yoma 8:5-6). With regards to the rule of
prohibition from labor it allows people to save a person on whom a pile of rubble collapsed and
there is a doubt as to whether or not he is underneath, or there is a doubt whether or not he is
alive, or whether he is an Israelite, or an idolater, they must clear the pile for him. If he is found
alive they clear the rest off him and if he is found dead they leave him till after the Sabbath (M.
Yoma 8:7). Further it places repentance on the part of the sinner as the necessary condition to be
forgiven of his/her sins (M. Yoma 8:8). “The man who thinks that he could go on sinning
because the Day of Atonement will atone for him, the Day of Atonement does not atone.” (M.
43
Even their offerings were not brought by them but by the high priest.
17
Yoma 8:9). It also cautions that the Day of Atonement does not remove responsibility for guilt in
matters touching human beings unless reparation precedes all else. God gives pardon for those
sins committed between the person and God and not for those committed against others. The
wrong doer must first seek to be reconciled and with others before standing before God.
Priest’s duty (32-34a)
In distinction from vv2-28 which speaks solely of Aaron, these verses focus on his
successors, the high priests. The high priest needs to make atonement for the sanctuary (a new
phrase is employed-‫) מקדׁש הקדׁש‬, the Tent of Meeting and the altar as well as for the priests and
“all the people of the congregation.” The opening part of v 34 “And this shall be,” is like that of
v 29, forming an inclusio for this section. It tells that only by observing all these rituals
prescribed in this chapter can Israel be purged of its sins. Mishnah Yoma doesn‟t offer any
details to this section.
Compliance Report (34b)
Here the subject again is Aaron and not his successors, which again places this text in a
historical context as if reporting the first observance of the Day of Atonement. 44 Mishnah Yoma
does not speak of this historical context.
Conclusion
In this paper, we have considered how Israel‟s cult on the day of atonement, expounded
by Lev 16 and subsequently complemented by Mishnah Yoma through its elaborate discussion
on it is concerned not so much about bloody sacrifices but on judgment and cleansing, sin and
atonement, fasting and prayer and drive home important lessons to the people of Israel. They tell
how this important annual happening, cleansed both impurities on the sanctuary and the sins of
the priests and the people as warrant for Yahweh‟s continued presence and the maintenance of
his relationship with Israel. While speaking of the seriousness of sin they also emphasize on the
divine provision for its eradication. The entry of the divinely appointed high priest along with the
blood into the innermost sanctuary and his smearing and sprinkling of it on various parts of the
44
Hartley, Leviticus, 227.
18
temple signaled to the people that their atonement assured the continuing presence of Yahweh
amidst them and the ritual of sending the goat to the wilderness indicated to them that their old
trespasses have gone and they indeed can have a new beginning.
This Israel‟s theology of sanctification is understood better when Lev 16 is studied along
with Mishnah Yoma. Though the Mishnah was put into writing only in the 2nd century C. E,
when there was no temple in Jerusalem, yet with its elaborate details and discussions on the
rituals brings vivid the events on the Day of Atonement. It gives great insight to the day,
mentioning both liturgical and spiritual aspects which are not directly stated in Leviticus 16. For
instance, the elaborate discussion on the need of high priest to be prepared adequately before the
Day, the explanation of what it means to afflict oneself deepens the understanding the theology
of sanctification. Their meticulous observations on the manner of performing the ritual at the
instances where Lev 16 is silent clarify the confusions one may have in performing them. By
affirming that the rituals alone don‟t suffice to effect atonement, that they need to be
accompanied by one‟s genuine contrition for his/her sins and readiness for reparation, it refuses
to be a mere legalistic document. A cursory reading of it may give an impression to the reader
that it emphasizes more on the letter of the law, yet we see the humane aspect of it when it gives
concession to the weak and the needy.
For Christians, the Bible presents two poignant cases of atonement, one being the Day of
Atonement and the other the self sacrifice of Jesus Christ. The author of Hebrews compares these
two events and draws out many theological lessons from the rituals described in Lev 16. In his
opinion the day of atonement prefigures crucifixion (Heb 9).Because of the sacrifice of Christ all
the believers have the right to enter into the presence of God (Heb 10:19ff). There is no doubt
that this Christian understanding of atonement which has become the center of Christian
dogmatics will be highly enhanced when it is read from the background of Lev 16 and Mishnah
Yoma both that are concerned about the necessity of atonement in order to maintain a right
relationship with the Divine.
19
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