Compressor Handbook: Principles and Practice Second Edition RIVER PUBLISHERS SERIES IN ENERGY ENGINEERING AND SYSTEMS Series Editors BOBBY RAUF Semtrain, LLC, USA The "River Publishers Series in Energy Engineering and Systems" is a series of comprehensive academic and professional books focusing on the theory and applications behind various energy-related technologies and control systems. The series features handbooks for related technology, as well as manuals on the fundamentals and theoretical aspects of energy engineering projects. The main aim of this series is to be a reference for academics, researchers, managers, engineers, and other professionals in related matters with energy engineering and control systems. Topics covered in the series include, but are not limited to: • Energy engineering; • Machinery; • Testing; • HVAC; • Electricity and electronics; • Water systems; • Industrial control systems; • Web based systems; • Automation; • Lighting controls. For a list of other books in this series, visit www.riverpublishers.com Compressor Handbook: Principles and Practice Second Edition Tony Giampaolo MSME, PE River Publishers Published 2024 by River Publishers River Publishers Alsbjergvej 10, 9260 Gistrup, Denmark www.riverpublishers.com Distributed exclusively by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Compressor Handbook: Principles and Practice — Second Edition / Tony Giampaolo. ©2024 River Publishers. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval systems, or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publishers. Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business ISBN 978-87-7022-737-7 (hardback) ISBN 978-10-0096-646-6 (online) ISBN 978-1-003-44987-4 (ebook master) While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher, authors, and editors cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions. Dedication This book is dedicated to my fve grandchildren: Amanda Rose Anna Josephine Carly Paige Riley James Nickolas Anthony They are the future. Contents Preface First Edition xiii Preface Second Edition xv Acknowledgements xvii List of Figures xix List of Tables xxix 1 Introduction History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 2 General Compressor Theory Reduced Temperature and Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Partial Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . First law of thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Second law of thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horse Power Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 10 10 11 11 11 3 Compressor Types Dynamic Compressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Axial compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Centrifugal compressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Variations in compressor design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Positive Displacement Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reciprocating compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Single-cylinder reciprocating compressor. . . . . . . . . . . Balanced opposed reciprocating compressor . . . . . . . . . Integral engine-compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preliminary selection and sizing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 13 13 18 22 22 23 26 28 45 47 48 vii viii Contents Screw Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Screw compressor control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 54 4 Effect of Operating Conditions General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dynamic Compressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Centrifugal Compressor Safety Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Positive Displacement Compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reciprocating Compressor Safety Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 57 57 63 63 64 5 Throughput Control Speed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Suction Valve Throttling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discharge Valve Throttling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Variable Guide Vane Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recycle Valve Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Suction Valve Unloaders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Variable or Fixed Volume Pockets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 65 65 66 66 67 67 71 6 Centrifugal/Axial Compressors Description of Surge Surge and Stall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 73 7 Surge Control Centrifugal/Axial Compressors Minimum Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maximum Pressure Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dual Variable Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ratio Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Surge Avoidance Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Surge Stop Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculate the Surge Line Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 77 77 78 79 83 83 84 8 Vibration 87 9 Valve Requirements Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 96 10 Seal Requirements Contacting Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “O” Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Positive Displacement Compressor Components . . . . . . . . . . Rotating Compressor Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dry gas seals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 101 101 101 104 112 Contents ix 11 Instrument Requirements 115 12 Detectable Problems 119 13 Controlling Reciprocating and Centrifugal Compressors in Identical Processes Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Control Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Method of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reciprocating Compressor Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Automatic operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manual operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Remote terminal display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Centrifugal compressor control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Automatic operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manual operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Potential Problems that were Avoided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 135 136 137 139 139 139 140 141 142 142 142 142 142 144 14 Optimization and Revitalization of Existing Reciprocating Compression Assets New Custom Engineered Replacement Cylinders. . . . . . . . . . Case history 1: Increased pipeline compressor capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case history 2: Improved service life . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case history 3: Providing safe and reliable production operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case history 4: Eliminating extremely serious piston failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case history 5: Increasing compressor effciency and throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case history 6: Increasing cylinder working pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case history 8: Emergency replacement of obsolete cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case history 9: Extending OEM standard cylinder offerings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case history 10: Filling gaps in OEM standard cylinder offerings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 150 152 153 154 155 158 160 163 164 165 x Contents Re-Applied Compressor Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case history 11: Adapting remanufactured cylinders to an existing compressor . . . . . . . . . . Case history 12: Mixing used OEM cylinders and frames to optimize performance . . . . . . . . . . . . Case history 13: Extending obsolete compressor life with new OEM cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case history 14: Completely reconfguring an existing compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compressor Optimization and Automation with Customized Unloading Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case history 15: Automation of propane refrigeration compressor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case history 16: Pipeline compressor automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case history 17: Replacement of variable speed engine with synchronous electric drive . . . . . . . . Case history 18: Automation of feld gas gathering compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 15 Piston Rod Run-out is a Key Criterion for Recip Compressors Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horizonal Run-Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vertical Run-Out. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal Run-Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acceptable Vertical Run-Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measuring Rod Run-Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Correcting Vertical Run-Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evaluating Vertical Run-Out. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 185 185 186 188 188 189 190 191 16 Effect of Pulsation Bottle Design On the Performance of a Modern Low-speed Gas Transmission Compressor Piston Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case study 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 195 196 198 205 209 210 167 170 171 174 175 176 177 178 179 182 183 183 Contents xi 17 Resolution of a Compressor Valve Failure: A Case Study Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Failure Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 212 216 219 220 Appendix A1 Compressor Manufacturers 221 Appendix A2 Comparison Table of the Three Types of Compressors 233 Appendix B1 List of Symbols 235 Appendix B2 Glossary of Terms 239 Appendix B3 Conversion Factors 265 Appendix C Gas Properties and Behavior 271 Appendix D Classifcation of Hazardous Atmospheres 309 Appendix E Air/Oil Cooler Specifcations Check List 311 Appendix F Cylinder Displacement Curves 315 Appendix G Compressor Cylinder Lubrication 321 Appendix H Troubleshooting Chart: Positive Displacement Compressors 325 Appendix I Starting, Operating and Maintenance Procedures 329 Appendix J Basic Motor Formulas and Calculations 347 Appendix K Glossary of Seal Terms 359 Appendix L Seal Materials 383 Index 387 About the Author 397 Preface First Edition Compressors have played a major role in setting our standard of living and they have contributed signifcantly to the industrial revolution. Early compressors like the bellows (used to stoke a fre or the water organ use to make music) marked the beginning of a series of compression tools. Without compression techniques we could not have effciently stabilized crude oil (by removing its trapped gasses) or separated the various components of gas mixtures or transported large quantities of gas cross country via gas pipelines. Today, compressors are so much a part of our every day existence that many of us do not even recognize them for what they are. Compressors exist in almost every business and household as vacuum cleaners and heating & air conditioning blowers. Even those who have worked with compressors (usually only one or two types of compressor) have only a vague awareness of the variety of compressors in existence today. It is always interesting to see how the inventive process takes place, and how the development process progresses from inception to fnal design. Therefore, included in some sections of the book is historical information on the development of various compressors. Due to the number of different types of compressors it was too time consuming to research the origins of each compressor type. For the roots blower and screw compressor the inventive process is clear as discussed in Chapters 1 and 3. However, the origin of the reciprocating compressor is somewhat obscured. No doubt the water organ devised by Ctesibius of Alexandria paved the way. Nevertheless, using water to compress air in a water organ is a far cry from a piston moving within a cylinder to compress gas. True there is signifcant similarity between reciprocating engines and reciprocating compressors: Just as there is similarity between turbo compressors and turbine expanders. Many engineers/technicians/operators spend their entire careers in one product discipline (manufacturing, maintenance, test, sales, etc…). Sometimes they have had the opportunity to work in several disciplines. This book is intended to assist in the transition from an academic background to a practical feld, or from one feld to another. It will assist the reader in his xiii xiv Preface First Edition day-to-day duties as well as knowing where to look for additional information. Also people respond better when they understand why they are asked to perform certain functions, or to perform them in a certain order. My intention is to provide a basic understanding of the variety of compressors. The need for this book has grown out of the request for seminars and training sessions from utilities and oil & gas companies. Most often these companies hire new employees or relocate and retrain their current employees. The reader may have some experience in the operation or maintenance of some compression equipment from previous assignments. This book provides a practical introduction to dynamic and positive displacement compressors, including compressor performance, operation and problem awareness. In reading this book the reader will learn what is needed to select, operate and troubleshoot compressors and to communicate with peers, sales personnel and manufacturers in the feld of dynamic and positive displacement compressor applications. In addition to the theoretical information, real life case histories are presented. The book demonstrates investigative techniques to identify and isolate various contributing causes such as: design defciencies, manufacturing defects, adverse environmental conditions, operating errors, and intentional or unintentional changes of the machinery process that precede the failure. Acquiring and perfecting these skills will enable readers to go back to their workplace and perform their job functions more effectively. In addition to the content of this book the engineer/ technician/ operator will fnd that the information provided in the appendix will become a useful reference for years to come. Tony Giampaolo Wellington, FL January 2010 Preface Second Edition The objective of this book, as stated in the frst edition Preface, is to identify and isolate various contributing causes such as: design defciencies, manufacturing defects, adverse environmental conditions, operating errors, and intentional or unintentional changes of the machinery process that precede a failure. Information included in this chapter on seals is designed to help the reader as follows: Understanding which seals are available for a specifc compressor design and their function as a frst step in recognizing design requirements and defciencies. The second step is to be knowledgeable regarding various seal materials. To assist the reader information on seal material is available in Appendix L. Some compressor manufacturers produce their own seals (usually in a different division of the company) but, in most instances, manufacturers obtain seals from vendors specializing in the production of seals. Therefore, the seal manufacturer must also be knowledgeable of the application (temperature, pressure, process gas). Compressor designers and seal manufacturers work closely together in the selection of the proper or appropriate seal. It is when this cooperative effort breaks down that the wrong seal is selected resulting in excessive seal leakage or shortened life. Seals are not perfect so it may take more than one seal or one type of seal to completely stop leakage. When it is imperative that there is no gas leakage to the atmosphere or other section of the compressor (oil compartment) multiple seals and a buffer gas may be employed. While day-to-day operational errors are small and inconsequential, they can result in a major impact on seals, seal leakage as a minimum and compressor reliability as a maximum. For example, blocking in a reciprocating compressor could result in a bent rod or a cracked compressor case. Therefore, it is imperative that operating instructions be understood and followed. When seal leakage occurs in the feld the frst step operators want to take is to replace the seal with a “better” seal. This is usually with the help of xv xvi Preface Second Edition the seal manufacturer but in some cases, it is the seal manufacturers’ competitor. This can be counterproductive as the new seal manufacturer may not be fully aware of the conditions under which the seal must operate. To further assist the reader in communicating with designers and operators a glossary of seal related terms is included in Appendix K. While seal size and selection are part of the overall compressor design, seals are considered after all the major components (pistons, impellers, blades) are designed and selected. Also, seals are often selected from a catalog of designs produced by a subcontractor. While a compressor design will be extremely specifc in the details of the piston, impeller or blade design, the designer will select the seals from a catalog that best fts the application’s needs and cost or budget. Initially the design engineer specifes the type or types of seals, the quantity of seals, and seal material based on the process gas composition, the pressures, and temperatures of the gas from compressor suction to discharge. As a result, seal selection is a compromise of availability and cost. The short- or long-term success of any compressor operation is dependent on 1) the initial design, and 2) the day-to-day care of the unit. Both efforts infuence and are impacted by these decisions. Hopefully, this book and specifcally the chapter on seals will provide you with the tools necessary to go forward towards successful compressor operation. Tony Giampaolo Goodyear, Arizona 2023 Acknowledgements I would like to recognize and thank the following individuals for their support and assistance in obtaining photographs for use in this book: • • • • • • • Norm Shade, President, ACI Services, Inc. Danny L. Garcia, Project Manager, Sun Engineering Services, Inc. Roger Vaglia, Product Manager (Retired), Cooper Ind., White Superior Division John Lunn Engineering Manager (Retired) Rolls Royce USA Everette Johnson, Engineering Manager, Cameron Compressor Corporation Ben Suurenbroek (Retired), Cooper Energy Services-Europe Dave Kasper, District Manager, Dresser Roots, Inc. I also want to acknowledge and thank Peter Woinich, Design Engineer, Construction Supervisor and Associate (Retired) of William Ginsberger, Associates for his help in proofreading this manuscript. Also, I wish to acknowledge and thank the following companies for their confdence and support by providing many of the photographs and charts that are in this book. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ACI Services, Inc. Baldor Electric Company Cameron Compressor Corporation COMPRESSORTechTwo magazine, published by Diesel and Gas Turbine Publications Dresser Roots, Inc Gas Processors Suppliers Association MAN Turbo AG Oil and Gas Journal Penn Engineering Petroleum Learning Programs Rolls Royce USA Sun Engineering Services, Inc. The Society of Tribologist and Lubrication Engineers (STLE) United Technologies Corp, Pratt and Whitney Canada xvii List of Figures Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4 Figure 1.5 Figure 1.6 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 Figure 3.6 Figure 3.7 Figure 3.8 Figure 3.9 Figure 3.10 Figure 3.11 Figure 3.12 Figure 3.13 Figure 3.14 Water Organ Developed by Ctesibius. . . . . . . . . 2 Photo Courtesy of Frick by Johnson controls. . . . . 3 Cooper-Bessemer Z-330 Integral Engine Compressors in Krunmhorn, Germany. Courtesy of Ben Suurenbroek (Retired Cooper Energy Services) . . . 3 Barrel Compressor Courtesy of Rolls-Royce USA (formerly Cooper Indusries Energy Services). . . . . 4 Five Stage Power Turbine Rotor from RTl5 Turbine Designed For 12,000 RPM Courtesy of Rolls-Royce USA (formerly Cooper Industries Energy Services). . 4 Courtesy of United Technologies Corporation, Pratt and Whitney, Canada. The ST-18 is a 2 Megawatt Aeroderivative Combining Centrifugal Compressor and Axial Expansion Turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Forces Acting on the Blades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Airfoil Angle of Attack Relative to Approaching Air or Gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Velocity Component Relative to Airfoil. . . . . . . . 15 Compression System Curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Compressor Performance Curve. . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Velocity Diagrams for an Axial Flow Compressor. . . 17 Elements of an Airfoil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Velocity Diagrams for a Centrifugal Compressor. . . 20 Comparing Characteristic Curves of Axial and Centrifugal Compressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Composite Surge Limit Line Resulting from Variations in Vane Position. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Rotary Blower Lobes Courtesy of Dresser Roots Inc. 23 Typical Blower Operating Sequence. . . . . . . . . . 24 Roots Blower Courtesy of Dresser-Roots, Inc. . . . . 25 Exploded View of the Roots Universal RAI Blower Courtesy of Dresser Roots, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . 26 xix xx List of Figures Figure 3.15 Figure 3.16 Figure 3.17 Figure 3.18 Figure 3.19 Figure 3.20 Figure 3.21 Figure 3.22 Figure 3.23 Figure 3.24 Figure 3.25 Figure 3.26 Figure 3.27 Figure 3.28 Figure 3.29 Figure 3.30 Figure 3.31 Figure 3.32 Three-lobe Blower Rotor Courtesy of Dresser Roots, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Worthington HB GG 24 × 13 Single Stage Compressor before Overhaul. Courtesy of Sun Engineering Services, Inc. and Power and 29 Compression Systems Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Superior MH/HW Compressor Crankshaft made from either Forged or Billet Heat Treated SAE 4140 Steel Courtesy of Cooper Cameron Corporation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Crosshead Assembly (Piston Rod Not Shown) Courtesy of ACI Services, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Rod Packing Assembly Courtesy of Cooper Cameron Corporation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Piston, Piston Rod, Rings and Wear Band Courtesy of ACI Services, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Exaggerated Representation of Piston Deformation and Rod Stretch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Three Piece Cast Iron Pistons with TFE Riders and Flanged Rods Courtesy of ACI Services, Inc. . . . . 33 Piston and Cylinder Assembly Courtesy of Cooper Cameron Corporation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Single Acting Piston Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Correct Valve Operation Courtesy of Roger Vaglia, Product Manager (Retired), White Superior Compressors 1962–2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Incorrect Valve Operation-Valve Overspringing Courtesy of Roger Vaglia, Product Manager (Retired), White Superior Compressors 1962–2000. . . . . . . 36 Compressor Poppet Valve Courtesy of Cooper Cameron Corporation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Compressor Plate Valve Courtesy of Cooper Cameron Corporation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Poppet Valve Poppets Courtesy of ACI Services, Inc. 37 Plug-Type Suction Valve Unloader Courtesy of ACI Services, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Head-End Unloaders Courtesy of ACI Services, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Finger-type Unloader Courtesy of Cooper Cameron Corporation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 List of Figures xxi Figure 3.33 Figure 3.34 Figure 3.35 Figure 3.36 Figure 3.37 Figure 3.38 Figure 3.39 Figure 3.40 Figure 3.41 Figure 3.42 Figure 3.43 Figure 3.44 Figure 3.45 Figure 3.46 Figure 3.47 Figure 3.49 Figure 3.48 Figure 4.1 Finger Type Unloader in the Open and Closed Positions Courtesy of Cooper Cameron Corporation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Volume Bottle Unloader Assembly in the Unloaded Position Courtesy of ACI Services, Inc. . . . . . . . 40 Compressor Frame Lubrication Oil System Courtesy of Petroleum Leaming Programs . . . . . . 41 Oil Scoop can be seen directly below the bearing cap nut. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Connecting Rod and Bearings Courtesy of ACI Services. Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Red Reversal is the Shortest Distance, in Crank Angle Degrees, from Point to Point. . . . . . . . . . 43 Dresser-Rand 7 HOSS-4 Compressors with Suction and Discharge Pulsation Bottles Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems. . . . . . . . . . . 44 Piping Isometric (One Line) Drawing Courtesy of Sun Engineering Services, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Worthington HB GG 24 × 13 Single-stage Compressor after overhaul. Compliments of Sun Engineering Services, Inc., and Power and 47 Compression Systems Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Superior WH-64 Separable Balanced Opposed Reciprocating Compressor Courtesy of Cooper Cameron Corporation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Integral Engine-compressor Cross-section with Power Pistons in the Vertical Plane and Compressor Pistons in the Horizontal Plane, Courtesy of Cooper Cameron 49 Corporation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Estimated Horse Power and Temperature Rise Based on Compression Ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Gas Screw Compressor Courtesy of MAN Turbo AG. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Typical Screw Compressor Rotors Courtesy of Frick By Johnson Controls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Slide Valve Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Screw Compressor Courtesy of MAN Turbo AG . . . 56 Capacity Control vs. Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Effects of Temperature and Pressure. . . . . . . . . . 58 xxii List of Figures Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9 Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3 Figure 5.4 Figure 5.5 Figure 5.6 Figure 5.7 Figure 5.8 Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3 Figure 7.1 Figure 7.2 Figure 7.3 Figure 7.4 Figure 7.5 Figure 8.1 Figure 8.2 Figure 8.3 Figure 8.4 Figure 8.5 Figure 8.6 Figure 9.1 Figure 9.2 Compression Ratio Effects on Gas Temperature and BHP/Flow.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Effect of Specifc Heat Ratio on BHP/Flow. . . . . . 59 Single-Stage Compressor Map. . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Two-Stage Compressor Map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Four-Stage Compressor Map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Effects of Changing Inlet Conditions. . . . . . . . . 61 Simplifed Compressor Map Using Pressures Only. . 63 Reciprocating Compressor Characteristic Curve.. . . 64 Speed Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Suction Valve Throttling Control. . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Discharge Valve Throttling Control. . . . . . . . . . 67 Variable Guide Vane Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Recycle Valve Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Four-cylinder Single-stage Balanced Opposed Separable Compressor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Variation in Flow and Horse Power as a Function of Suction Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Affect of Opening/Closing the Head-End Variable Volume Pocket. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Rotating Stall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Jet Engine Axial Compressor Surge. . . . . . . . . . 74 Compressor Map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Minimum Flow Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Maximum Pressure Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Dual Variable Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Ratio Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Surge Control Map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Rotor Response Curve Depicting Operation from Critically Damped to Critically Undamped. . . . . . 88 Hydrodynamic Bearing Whirl Orbits. . . . . . . . . 89 Centrifugal Compressor Cross-section Compliments of Dresser Roots, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Simplifed Rotor Shaft System. . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Spectrographic Vibration Plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Vibration Map Showing Relationship Between Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration. . . . . . . 92 Valve Trim Flow Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Typical Valve Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 List of Figures xxiii Figure 10.1 Figure 10.2 Figure 10.3 Figure 10.4 Figure 10.5 Figure 10.6 Figure 10.7 Figure 10.8 Figure 10.9 Figure 10.10 Figure 10.11 Figure 10.12 Figure 10.13 Figure 10.14 Figure 10.15 Figure 10.16 Figure 10.17 Figure 10.18 Typical “O” Ring installation. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Packing Seals. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Seal Ring Arrangement. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Single Distance Piece. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Double Distance Piece. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Intermediate Partition Packing with Inert Buffer Gas Purge. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems. . 104 Steel spring Backed Rubber Seal. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Brush Seal. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Mechanical Contact Carbon Face Seal. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems. . . . . . . . . . . 106 Mechanical (Contact Shaft Seal). Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Mechannical Contact Carbon Seal Rings. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems. . . . . . . . . . . 108 Mechanical Contact Bushing Seal. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Mechanical Contact Circumferential Seal. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems. . . . . . . . . . . 109 Labyrinth Seal in Buffered Gas Application. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems. . . . . . . . . . . 109 Labyrinth Seal. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Knife Edge Seals on the Rotating Component. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Seal Lands Showing the Result of Contact with Knife Edge Seals. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems Company. . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Compressor Rotor with Knife Edge Seals. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 xxiv List of Figures Figure 10.19 Damaged Seal Land. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems Company. . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Figure 10.20 Honeycomb Seal Land. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems Company. . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Figure 10.21 Dry Gas Seal. Rotating Ring Incorporates Vein-like Grooves Shown as Spiral Grooves. Courtesy of Power and Compression Systems. . . . . . . . . . . 113 Figure 12.1 Separable Balanced Opposed 6—Throw Engine Driven Compressor in Pipeline Service Complete with Off-skid Mounted Control System. . . . . . . . 120 Figure 12.2 Axial Compressor Stator Surge Damage.. . . . . . . 122 Figure 12.3 Axial Compressor Rotor Surge Damage. . . . . . . . 122 Figure 12.4 Axial Compressor with Contamination Build-up on Blades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Figure 12.5 Axial Compressor with Contamination Build-up on Leading Edge of Stator Airfoils.. . . . . 124 Figure 12.6 Reciprocating Compressor Distance Piece with Piston Rod. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Figure 12.7 Reciprocating Compressor Piston Rod Showing Wear at Location Where Rod Passes through Packing Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Figure 12.8 Compressor Piston on Inspection Table. . . . . . . . 126 Figure 12.9 Typical Hydrodynamic Tilt-pad Bearing. This Bearing Pivots on Pins Specifcally Sized to Obtain the Proper Bearing-to-journal Clearance.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Figure 12.10 Stable and Unstable Hydrodynamic Bearing Whirl Orbits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Figure 12.11 Reciprocating Compressor Discharge Valve Showing Carbon Build-up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Figure 12.12 Reciprocating Compressor Showing Piston Rod Installed in Crank End of Piston. . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Figure 12.13 Reciprocating Compressor Showing Failed Piston Rod at Mating Surface with Crank End of Piston. . . 130 Figure 12.14 Reciprocating Compressor VVP Failure at Screw. . . 130 Figure 12.15 Reciprocating Compressor Showing Failed Distance Piece. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Figure 12.16 Reciprocating Compressor Showing Damage to the VVP Following Failure of the AdjustWer Screw. . 131 Figure 12.17 Reciprocating Compressor Hydrodynamic Bearing Shoe Showing Normal Wear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 List of Figures xxv Figure 12.18 Reciprocating Compressor Hydrodynamic Bearing Shoe Showing Distress Following Bearing Failure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 13.1 Parallel Operation of Compressors.. . . . . . . . . . Figure 13.2 Electric Motor-driven Reciprocating Fuel Gas Booster Compressor Package. . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 13.3 Reciprocating Compressor Control Panel. . . . . . . Figure 13.4 Control System Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 13.5 Supervisory Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 13.6 Remote Workstation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 13.7 Supervisory Control Ladder Logic. . . . . . . . . . . Figure 13.8 Initial Recycle Valve Response.. . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 13.9 Final Recycle Valve Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 14.1 Custom cylinder experience—bore dia. vs. stroke. . . Figure 14.2 Custom cylinder experience—pressure rating vs. Bore diameter.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 14.3 Retroftting custom engineered cylinders increased bore size by 32% on this 17 in. (431.8 Mm) stroke Clark integral compressor. . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 14.4 This custom engineered ASTM A316 cast stainless steel cylinder eliminated a severe corrosion problem with the cast iron cylinder that it replaced. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 14.5 3rd stage syn gas cylinder showing location of leak detection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 14.6 New AISI 4140 forged steel cylinder with water jacket, weighing more than 10,000 lb. (4335 kg). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 14.7 Finite element stress analysis of high-pressure cylinder body showing high stresses in valve seat fllets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 14.8 Multi-piece Piston fnite element stress plot. . . . . . Figure 14.9 Original 18.0 in. (457.2 mm) oem 2nd stage cylinder [left] that experienced frequent rapid, catastrophic piston failures due to a mis-application. . . . . . . . Figure 14.10 New 18.125 in. (460.4 mm) bolt-in 2nd stage replacement cylinder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 14.11 New 21.0 inc. (533.4 mm) bolt-in 1st stage replacement cylinders with manual variable volume clearance pockets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 137 138 138 139 140 141 145 146 147 150 151 152 153 155 156 156 157 158 159 159 xxvi List of Figures Figure 14.12 The frst of six new high-effciency bolt-in replacement cylinders [left] is installed on a six-throw, singlestage D-R 6HOS-6 frame. Two of the original OEM cylinders are shown on adjacent throws [right] prior to replacement.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Figure 14.13 Original OEM 1100 psig (75.8 bar) valve-in head type cylinders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Figure 14.14 New custom engineered 1200 psig (82.7 bar) bolt-in replacement valve-in-barrel type cylinders.. . . . . . 162 Figure 14.15 Original problematic valve-in-head cylinders required disturbing the outboard piping connections to access the piston, piston rod and packing. . . . . . 162 Figure 14.16 New bolt-in replacement valve-in-barrel cylinders reused original valves, packing and cylinder unloaders. Piping connections are no longer disturbed for piston, rod, and packing maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Figure 14.17 Liner installation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Figure 14.18 Finished cylinder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Figure 14.19 Special 3000 psig (206.8 bar) 17-4PH stainless steel tail rod cylinder designed for acid gas injection service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Figure 14.20 2500 psig (172.4 bar) cylinder family developed to fll a gap in the OEM’s offerings for high-pressure air drilling service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Figure 14.21 One of two used I-R cylinders prior to the remanufacturing process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Figure 14.22 Performance model for 3-cylinder, single-stage I-R Compressor Showing All Load Steps Required for System Flexibility Without Overloading at the Maximum Specifed Discharge Pressure. . . . . . . . 168 Figure 14.23 Remanufactured cylinders with new fxed volume clearance pocket heads and valve caps undergoing an 8-hr factory hydrostatic test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Figure 14.24 One of two reconfgured KVG units after adding a 10.16 in. (258.1 mm) diameter remanufactured cylinder [center] and adding new clearance pockets, radial poppet suction valve deactivators, and other new components to all the cylinders. . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Figure 14.25 Adaptation of 5.5 in. (140 mm) stroke Ariel cylinders to a Superior 6.0 in. (152 m) stroke Superior compressor frame.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 List of Figures xxvii Figure 14.26 2000 hp (1491 kW), 900 rpm, gas engine driven 3-stage propane refrigeration compressor. . . . . . . Figure 14.27 Obsolete KOCA-2 compressor prior to conversion. . Figure 14.28 Loading map for new 2-stage confguration. . . . . . Figure 14.29 Obsolete KOCA/2 frame with new ariel cylinders applied. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 14.30 Prior to reconfguring, this oversized 3-stage Joy WB14 nitrogen compressor required 76% of the fow to be recycled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 14.31 The reconfgured unit was sized to meet the process requirements without signifcant recycled fow. . . . Figure 14.32 Fine unloading steps for a wide range of operating conditions are provided by a combination of fxed and variable unloaders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 14.33 New automatic clearance pockets added to propane refrigeration compressor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 14.34 One of fve large 19.0 In. (483 mm) stroke integral engine compressors that were completely confgured for automatic operation with a broad range of pressure ratios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 14.35 Two-throw compressor speed with multiple clearance pockets on each compressor cylinder head end. . . . Figure 14.36 The multiple pocket unloaders, together with valve deactivators on the two head ends, provided more fexibility with a synchronous motor drive than the same compressor had with a 33% speed turn down. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 14.37 With only manual control, this 2-stage Ajax compressor was either under-loaded or subject to frequent shutdowns to avoid overload. . . . . . . . . Figure 14.38 Two-throw compressor speed with multiple clearance pockets on each compressor cylinder head end. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 14.39 3-volume clearance pocket unloader. . . . . . . . . . Figure 15.1 Reciprocating Compressor Package. . . . . . . . . . Figure 15.2 Basic geometry of cold vertical rod run-out (As measured by a dial indicator during a manual bar-over). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 15.3 Vertical rod run-out relationships. . . . . . . . . . . Figure 15.4 Rod run-out relative to sag. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 180 181 182 182 186 187 188 191 xxviii List of Figures Figure 15.5 Figure 16.1 Figure 16.2 Figure 16.3 Figure 16.4 Figure 16.5 Figure 16.6 Figure 16.7 Figure 16.8 Figure 16.9 Figure 16.10 Figure 16.11 Figure 16.12 Figure 16.13 Figure 16.14 Figure 16.15 Figure 16.16 Figure 16.17 Figure 16.18 Figure 17.1 Figure 17.2 Figure 17.3 Figure 17.4 Crosshead and piston subjected to rod sag. . . . . . . Effciency Survey in the Installed Base of Integral Units in the US Gas Transmission Industry. . . . . . Cooper GMW330 with 21-inch Bore Cylinders. . . . Cooper GMW330 Original Bottle Design – 1996. . . Cylinder Performance for the Original Bottle Design at 330 rpm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Source of Excessive Horsepower Loss for the Original Bottle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cooper GMW330 Modifed Bottle Design – 1997. . Cylinder Performance for the Modifed Bottle at 330 rpm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effect of Residual Pulsations on Cylinder Performance for the Cooper GMW330 Unit. . . . . . Current Bottle Layout for the Cooper GMW330 Unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dual Choke Confguration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Special Fitting for Dual Chokes. . . . . . . . . . . . Cylinder Performance for the Current Bottle Layout at 330 rpm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Unit 11 Choke 4th Order Dynamic Pressure RPM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Unit 11 Discharge Pressure Versus RPM.. . . . . . . Dresser-Rand HHE Low-Speed Separable Unit. . . . IPPS Pressure Drop Predictions for Second-Stage Discharge Choke. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Existing Bottle Confgurations for HHE Units.. . . . Cylinder 2 Performance for Existing Bottle Design. . Concentric Ring Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ported Plate Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lift Diagram Concentric Ring Valve Head End Discharge Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lift Diagram Ported Plate Valve Head End Discharge Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 197 199 199 200 201 202 202 203 204 204 205 205 206 207 207 208 208 209 213 213 214 214 List of Tables Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Chart 5.1 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Chart 7.1 Table 8.1 Table 9.1 Table 9.2 Table 11.1 Table 11.2 Table 16.1 Table 16.2 English and Metric Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Specifc Gas Constants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blower Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Troubleshooting Chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compressor Loader/Unloader Sequence . . . . . . . Surge Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors Leading to Surge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Surge Control Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical Sources of Vibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Valve Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Valve Trim. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sensor Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thermocouple and RTD Temperature Ranges. . . . . Performance Summary for Current GMW330 Bottle Layout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cylinder Effciency for Existing HHE Bottle Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix 8 9 25 27 69 76 76 82 91 96 96 116 117 206 210 1 Introduction History The history of compressors is as varied as are the different types of compressors. Therefore it is ftting that we frst identify the different types of compressors. As shown in Chart 1.1, compressors fall into two separate and distinct categories: dynamic and positive displacement. Somewhere in antiquity the bellows was developed to increase fow into a furnace in order to stoke or increase furnace heat. This was necessary to smelt ores of copper, tin, lead and iron. This led the way to numerous other inventions of tools and weapons. One of the earliest recorded uses of compressed gas (air) dates back rd to 3 century B.C. This early use of compressed air was the “water organ.” The invention of the “water organ” is commonly credited to Ctesibius of Chart 1.1 1 2 Introduction Alexandria1. The concept was further improved by Hero of Alexandria (also noted for describing the principles of expanding steam to convert steam power to shaft power). The water organ consisted of a water pump, a chamber partly flled with air and water, a row of pipes on top (organ pipes) of various diameters and lengths plus connecting tubing and valves. By pumping water into the water/air chamber the air becomes compressed. Than by opening valves to specifc organ pipes the desired musical sound is created. Ctesibius also developed the positive disFigure 1.1 Water Organ Developed by Ctesibius.2 placement cylinder and piston to move water. It was not until the late 19th century that many of these ideas were turned into working hardware. In the 1850s, while trying to fnd a replacement for the water wheel at their family’s woolen mill, Philander and Francis Roots devised what has come to be known as the Roots blower3. Their design consisted of a pair of fgure-eight impellers rotating in opposite directions. While some Europeans were simultaneously experimenting with this design, the Roots brothers perfected the design and put it into large-scale production. It is not surprising that other compressor designs followed powerproducing designs. For example, the reciprocating engine concept easily transfers to the reciprocating compressor. The integral-engine-compressor is a good example as its design utilizes one main shaft connected to both the power cylinders and the compression cylinders. The form and function of the compressor cylinders are the same whether it is confgured as an integral engine compressor or a separablecompressor driven by an electric motor, gas engine or turbine. Other examples are the centrifugal compressor, (Figure 1.4) the turbo-expander, the axial compressor, and the axial turbine (Figure 1.5 and 1.6). In 1808 John Dumball envisioned a multi-stage axial compressor. Unfortunately his idea consisted only of moving blades without stationary airfoils to turn the fow into each succeeding stage.4,5,6 Not until 1872 did Dr. Franz Stolze combine the ideas of John Barber and John Dumball to develop the frst axial compressor driven by an axial turbine. Due to a lack of funds, he did not build his machine until 1900. History 3 Figure 1.2 Photo Courtesy of Frick by Johnson controls. Figure 1.3 Cooper-Bessemer Z-330 Integral Engine Compressors in Krunmhorn, Germany. Courtesy of Ben Suurenbroek (Retired Cooper Energy Services) 4 Introduction Figure 1.4 Barrel Compressor Courtesy of Rolls-Royce USA (formerly Cooper Indusries Energy Services). Figure 1.5 Five Stage Power Turbine Rotor from RTl5 Turbine Designed For 12,000 RPM Courtesy of Rolls-Royce USA (formerly Cooper Industries Energy Services). Dr. Stolze’s design consisted of a multi-stage axial fow compressor, a single combustion chamber, a multi-stage axial turbine, and a regenerator utilizing exhaust gases to heat the compressor discharge gas. This unit was tested between 1900 and 1904, but never ran successfully. Operating conditions have a signifcant impact on compressor selection and compressor performance. The infuences of pressure, temperature, molecular weight, specifc heat ratio, compression ratio, speed, vane position, volume bottles, loaders and unloaders, etc. are addressed in this book. These conditions impact compressor capacity and therefore the compressor History 5 Figure 1.6 Courtesy of United Technologies Corporation, Pratt and Whitney, Canada. The ST-18 is a 2 Megawatt Aeroderivative Combining Centrifugal Compressor and Axial Expansion Turbine. selection. They also impact the compressor effciency. Flexibility in selection is still possible to some extent as compressors can be operated in parallel and series modes. For example, to achieve higher pressures multiple compressors can be confgured in series whereby the discharge of one compressor feeds directly into the suction of a second compressor, etc. Likewise, to achieve higher fows multiple compressors can be confgured in parallel whereby the suction of each compressor is manifolded together and the discharge of each compressor is also manifolded together. Different methods of throughput control are addressed in Chapter 5, such as, discharge throttling, suction throttling, guide vane positioning, volume bottles, suction valve unloaders and speed control; and how each of these control methods effects compressor life. This book discusses different compressors; how they operate and how they are controlled. Since the cost of process downtime and damage to a compressor can range from thousands to millions of dollars; the types of failures that can occur and how to avoid these failures is also addressed in this book. In view of the fact that the most destructive event in a dynamic compressor is surge, compressor surge will be defned and discussed in detail. Also discussed are the various types of instrumentation (controllers, valves, pressure and temperature transmitters, etc.) available and which are most suitable in controlling surge. Destructive modes of other compressors are also addressed. A few algorithms are presented, primarily in Chapters 4 and 7, to help demonstrate interactions of pressure, temperature and quantify results, but their understanding is not essential to the selection of the proper control scheme and instrumentation. The reader should not be intimidated by these 6 Introduction algorithms as their understanding will open up a broader appreciation of how the compressor works. Footnotes 1 2 3 4 5 6 A History of Mechanical Inventions, Abbott Payton Usher. This Dover edition, frst published in 1988, is an unabridged and unaltered republication of the revised edition (1954) of the work frst published by Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, in 1929. Multiple sources were found for this sketch, none of which referenced a source. Initiative In Energy, The Story of Dresser Industries, Darwin Payne, 1979 Engines—The Search for Power, John Day, 1980 The Gas Turbine, Norman Davy, 1914 Modern Gas Turbines, Arthur W. Judge 1950 Optimization and Revitalization of Existing Reciprocating Compression Assets Brahler, C.D. ; Hickman, D.A. and Shade, W.N. , Performance Control of Reciprocating Compressors - Devices for Managing Load and Flow, Gas Machinery Conference, Albuquerque, NM, Oct. 7, 2008. Brahler, C.D. and Schadler, H.C. , One Compressor OEM May Not Have the Optimum Equipment Selection, Gas Machinery Conference, Dallas, TX, Oct. 1, 2007. Harbert, P. ; Hickman, D. ; Mathai, G. , and Miller, R. , An Automation Method for Optimizing and Controlling A Reciprocating Compressor Using Load Step, Speed and Suction Pressure Control, Gas Machinery Conference, Dallas, TX, Oct. 2, 2007. Shade, W.N. , Custom Engineered High-Performance Cylinders Revitalize Existing Compressor Assets, GMC Today, Oct. 4, 2004. Shade, W.N. , DCP Midstream Upgrades LaGloria Gas Plant, COMPRESSORTechTwo, Oct. 2007. Shade, W.N. , Modern Replacements for Old Valve-In-Head Compressor Cylinders, GMC Today, Oct. 2, 2007. Shade, W.N. , Re-Engineering Extends the Utilization of Pipeline Compressor Assets, GMC Today, Oct. 3, 2006. Effect of Pulsation Bottle Design On the Performance of a Modern Lowspeed Gas Transmission Compressor Piston Berry, Renee , “Gas Transmission Compressor Efficiency Survey.” GMRC Research Project Conducted by Southwest Research Institute, 1995. Gehri, Christine and Harris, Ralph , Ph.D., “High Speed Reciprocating Compressors - The Importance of Interactive Modeling.” Presented at the Gas Machinery Conference, Houston, TX, October 1999. Gehri, Christine and Harris, Ralph , Ph.D., “Technology for the Design and Evaluation of HighSpeed Reciprocating Compressor Installations.” Presented at the European Forum for Reciprocating Compressors, Dresden, Germany, November 1999.
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